Introduction Archaeozoology is an interdisciplinary scientific field that gives answers to numerous social and biological questions. It explores zoogeographic relationships, evolution, human impact on the environment from an animal perspective, diet and resources, economic advancement, and other human influences or behaviours. Biological research such as species extinction, changes in species morphology, population structure, domestication, and species domestication, as well as research on environmental factors throughout history, contribute to archaeozoology in drawing conclusions about humananimal relationships. Accordingly, for successful archaeozoological research, knowledge of osteology, taxonomy, animal behaviour, ecological relationships, and in the archaeological context, site and excavation methods is necessary. Faunal remains from archaeological sites can indicate differences in the diet between social strata and based on that, draw conclusions about social and economic status. Indicators pointing to a higher social status include greater species diversity, more young age categories of domestic animals, high abundance of bones from body parts with more meat, more wild animals, birds, and fish. Each archaeozoological investigation should include the data on level of bone preservation, excavation methods, geographical factors, and the religion of the researched society. In Croatia, as in the rest of Europe, numerous territorial and political changes occur in the Middle Ages, leading to significant economic and social differences. Animal husbandry becomes the main branch of economy and as such crucial for maintaining human communities. Animal husbandry had an extensive form, and domestic animals such as goats, sheep, pigs, cattle, and poultry were raised. In addition to the meat of domestic animals, as the most important source of protein, the diet included milk, cheese, butter, lard, and eggs, and their secondary products such as wool, leather, and fertilizer were also utilized. Aims In Croatia, there is a lack of research on animal husbandry and dietary habits of medieval inhabitants. Furthermore, to this day, there are no comprehensive and comparative archaeozoological studies of animal remains from Croatian archaeological sites. The primary objective of this research was to contribute novel scientific insights into the distribution of animal species across eight medieval sites in Croatia. Through a meticulous comparative analysis, this study aimed to elucidate dietary patterns, socioeconomic dynamics, and the morphological traits and husbandry practices of domesticated animals. Material and methods Animal remains originate from the 13th to 16th century A. D. and have been excavated from eight archaeological sites in continental Croatia: the Benedictine Abbey of St. Michael Archangel, the Benedictine Monastery of St. Margaret, the Pauline Monastery of All Saints, fortresses Stari grad Milengrad, Plemićki grad Vrbovec, Stari grad Barilović, Stari grad Sokolac, and Stari grad Krčingrad. All samples were divided into those that could be identified (samples with known bone and taxon they belonged to) and those that could not (unidentified). The group of identified samples included elements with fully or partially preserved epiphyses, diaphyses with muscle, ligament, and tendon attachment surfaces or with nutrient foramina, all skull elements or mandibles with recognizable bone morphology, and bone fragments longer than 5 cm. The primary archaeozoological analysis included the total number of identified specimens (NISP), analysis of bone modifications and pathological changes, assessment of age and sex, osteometry, and sample weighing. Secondary archaeozoological analysis included calculating minimum number of individuals (MNI), relative abundance of species, age and sex diagrams, estimating withers height, biomass, and usable meat mass. Results and discussion The primary archaeozoological analysis resulted in a large number of animal remains, consisting of bones, teeth, and horns or horn cores. The total number of animal remains for all investigated sites was 25,739. The highest number of samples was found on the archaeological sites Plemićki grad Vrbovec and Stari grad Barilović, while the lowest on the site Stari grad Sokolac. The majority of animal remains consisted of bones of domestic and wild mammals, including cattle, small ruminants (goat and sheep), pigs, red deer, roe deer, hare, and brown bear. In a significantly smaller number, remains of horses, carnivores (dogs and cats), and small mammals (mole, water vole, red squirrel, beaver, badger, polecat) were found. Bird bones, fish, turtles, and molluscs were also found in the sample. Out of the total number of animal remains, for 34.26% (N = 8817) of them the taxon and skeletal category were determined. Out of identifiable animal remains, 90.65% were bones, teeth, and horns/horn cores of mammals. For 55.73% (N = 14,344) of the sample, it was not possible to determine taxon and skeletal category, with species identification being the most commonly hindered. Then, 41 bones of fish, 29 remains of turtles, and 36 molluscs were found. Due to extensive damage, 10.02% (n = 2578) of animal remains were classified as unidentifiable. The highest number of identified specimens was at the site of the Benedictine monastery of St. Margaret (49.82%), while the smallest was at the fortress Stari grad Krčingrad (21.86%). Furthermore, it was determined that the preservation of samples was significantly higher at the sites of the clergy in eastern Croatia (Benedictine monastery of St. Margaret, Benedictine Abbey of St. Michael the Archangel, and Pauline monastery of All Saints) compared to the sites of nobility in northern and southwestern Croatia (fortresses Stari grad Barilović, Stari grad Krčingrad, Stari grad Milengrad, Plemićki grad Vrbovec, Stari grad Sokolac). Among the taphonomic processes recorded in this study, the most common were traces of butchering, followed by traces of gnawing. Traces of burning were recorded in a small number of specimens. Cut and chop marks on bones suggest both primary and secondary butchery that include dividing the carcass into halves or quarters, then further breaking it down into parts suitable for consumption. Evidence of gnawing primarily linked to carnivores, with rodents playing a minor role, reinforces the conclusion that these animal remains were human waste disposed of in a manner accessible to animals. The discovery of gnawing marks further confirms the presence of carnivores at the investigated sites. It was determined that cattle, goats, sheep, and pigs were the most common species in the diet of clergy and nobility in the Medieval Croatia. At the fortresses Stari grad Barilović (BAR) and Stari grad Sokolac (SOK), a large number of bones from small ruminants and cattle were identified. At the BAR site, the largest number of samples belonged to cattle (32.22%), with slightly fewer belonging to small ruminants (28.92%). At the SOK site, the largest number of samples belonged to small ruminants (45.65%), while the proportion of cattle was 25%. The majority of cattle remains belonged to female individuals older than 2 – 3.5 years. Cows were likely raised to adulthood for breeding and milk production, while males were mainly raised for meat, with a few males retained for breeding and as working animals. The dominance of older age categories of small ruminants at the site SOK, i.e., animals older than two to three years, may confirm the breeding of animals for wool and milk. The breeding goal of small ruminants at investigated sites was possibly for mixed use, including wool, milk, and meat production. Bones of red deer, roe deer and rabbit were identified at both sites, further confirming that higher social classes inhabited these sites. At the fortress site Stari grad Krčingrad (KRC) pig (34.36%) and small ruminant (32.26%) remains were most abundant. Remains of cattle and wild animals were represented in a smaller percentage, and remains of birds and molluscs were found in very low numbers. Out of pig remains, bones from both young and old animals were equally represented. Meat diet was based on young male pigs, while older animals were raised for breeding. Among the remains of small ruminants, bones that belonged to animals of one to three years predominated and were most likely raised for wool and secondary for meat. At two noble sites, that belonged to the North Croatia group, Stari grad Krčingrad (KRČ) and Plemićki grad Vrbovec (PGV) significantly higher proportion of pigs (39% and 39.89%) and cattle (38.93% and 35.96%) remains were determined compared to small ruminants (11.85% and 11.14%). For the pig remains, all age groups were equally represented and were probably bred for meat. Contrary to that, most of the cattle remains belonged older females, older than two to three years, with a significantly smaller number of young animals. Based on that, inhabitants of sites KRC and PGV kept cattle for milk production and for traction. At the Benedictine monastery of St. Margaret, cattle were the most represented species (42.82 %), followed by small ruminants with 34.55 %, while remains of pigs were found in a significantly lower percentage (14.37 %). Besides domestic animals, remains of red deer, roe deer, and rabbits were found. Bird bones, also scarce, were not a primary dietary component at this site. Most of the remains from cattle and small ruminants belonged to older animals leading to the conclusion that they were bred for milk production, wool and as working animals. However, the potential for breeding for meat cannot be ruled out. Small number of pig remains is probably the result of Ottoman occupation of this site. In addition to the bones of domestic animals, in the monastery of St. Margaret, as well as in the Kells monastery, bones of red deer, roe deer, and rabbits were identified, but in significantly smaller percentages. Bird bones were also found in smaller numbers and were not the staple of the monks' diet in the monastery of St. Margaret. In contrast, for two sites of clergy, Benedictine Abbey of St. Michael Archangel (RUD) and Pauline monastery of All Saints (STR), pigs were the most abundant species with 43.70 % and 43.32 %, respectively. At the site RUD, small ruminants (27,07 %) were the second most represented species, while at STR cattle (35.36 %) were second most abundant species. A small number of wild mammals (red deer, roe deer, and rabbits), as well as bird and fish bones, were identified. At both sites, the most numerous were pig remains belonging to animals younger than 1.5 years and were presumably kept for meat. The remains of sheep and goats were found in equal proportions among juvenile and adult age groups, suggesting these species were bred for wool, milk, and high-quality meat. Most cattle remains were from adult animals, indicating their use for milk production, traction, and breeding. When comparing the sites, different pattern of species representation was observed at noble and clergy sites, as well as eastern, northern and southwestern Croatia sites. There was a higher number of remains that belonged to juvenile cattle at clergy sites, i. e. eastern Croatia when compared to nobility sites. Likewise, a higher number of bones from young goats (6 – 12 months) and sheep (3 – 10 months) was determined. A larger number of animal bones slaughtered before the optimal age, i.e., the age when feed for animals and the amount of meat are in balance, is a possible sign of meat production. On the other hand, a higher proportion of adult cattle remains was observed at noble sites, i. e. northern and southwestern Croatia sites. Likewise, a higher proportion of goat and sheep remains belonging to individuals older than 1.5 – 2 and 1.5 – 3 years, was determined. Based on such findings, it could be concluded that these species were primarily raised for obtaining secondary products. For pig remains, all age groups were equally represented ac cross all investigated sites. Conclusions The dietary habits of medieval nobility and clergy in continental Croatia remained largely consistent regardless of their social standing, and the geographical position of investigated sites and led to the conclusion that diet was based mainly on cattle, small ruminants, and pigs. Analysis of cattle, sheep, and pig bones revealed comparable body proportions among adult animals of each species, implying the utilization of similar phenotypes throughout medieval Croatia. The presence of remains of hunted wild mammals and birds, as well as signs of butchering on bones, indicate a population of higher social status.