Sažetak | Velika Britanija je nakon Drugog Svjetskog rata predstavljala europsku zemlju suočenu sa gubitkom nekadašnje političke i ekonomske moći. Neuvjerena u bezuvjetnu korisnost europskih integracija, često će među posljednjim državama pristupati određenim ugovorima i sporazumima. Politika slična skandinavskom socijaldemokratskom modelu (država socijalne pomoći), koja se započela provoditi od 1945., neće se pokazati kao kvalitetno rješenje za društvene i ekonomske prilike u Velikoj Britaniji. Jedno od važnijih pitanja unutar države predstavljala je asimilacija/integracija mnogobrojnih doseljenika koji su pristizali u Englesku iz raznih područja Commonwealtha. Kao vrhunac lošeg upravljanja državom uzima se period prijelaza iz 1978. u 1979. (Winter of discontent). Dolaskom na vlast Margaret Thatcher 1979., država doživljava preustroj u okvirima neoliberalne ekonomske doktrine i reforme javne uprave.
Sjedinjene Američke Države će po završetku Drugog Svjetskog rata jedine istupiti kao ekonomska velesila. Putem NATO saveza i trgovinskih odnosa sa zemljama zapadne Europe uspješno će širiti svoj utjecaj, te se na taj način sukobiti s istočnim komunističkim državama predvođenima Sovjetskim savezom. Vanjskopolitički potezi SAD-a znatno će utjecati na njihovu unutarnju politiku. To će prvenstveno biti sukob danas poznat pod nazivom Vijetnamskog rata (periodi najvećih intervencija i sukoba u razdoblju od 1965. do 1969.). Tijekom 1970-ih SAD će također zahvatiti period ekonomske i društvene nestabilnosti. Iduće desetljeće, njihova ekonomska i politička moć ponovno će rasti, te znatno utjecati na rasplet hladnoratovskog sukoba.
Završetkom Drugog Svjetskog rata, Socijalistička Federativna Republika Jugoslavija, pod vodstvom Josipa Broza Tita i Komunističke partije, kreće u nemilosrdno obračunavanje s političkim protivnicima. Ovim događajima, prethodile su likvidacije ratnih zarobljenika i civila tijekom ratnih sukoba, ali i u poraću. Od samog ustroja nove države, vodeći komunisti kreću u oblikovanje javnog mijenja koje će podržavati nedemokratsku vlast. Nakon sukoba sa Staljinom i Informbiroom 1948., Jugoslavija će sve do svoje dezintegracije djelovati kao tampon zona između europskog zapada i istoka. Mjerama socijalne revolucije, koje su provođene u prvom desetljeću postojanja države, postiglo se jačanje državne vlasti, slabljenje privatnog sektora, oslobađanje od stranog kapitala te uvođenje gospodarske centralizacije. Proces pretjerane industrijalizacije (iako je dovela do rasta godišnjih stopa nacionalnog dohotka), dovesti će do stvaranja velikog broja radničke klase i birokratskog aparata. Ovakav će sustav, bez djelovanja tržišta, uz ubrzan razvoj dovesti i do nerentabilnog gospodarstva i proizvodnje. Iako su članovi Komunističke partije govorili uvijek u ime komunizma, a nikada u ime nacije, upravo će se problemi nacionalnih pitanja protezati kroz čitavu povijest Jugoslavije, pa tako biti i uzroci njezinog raspada. Najgora ekonomska situacija u kojoj će se Jugoslavija pronaći, biti će ona na prijelazu iz 1970-ih u 1980-e. Poražavajuće ekonomske brojke ogledavale su se i u svakodnevnom životu ljudi. Sredina 1980-ih dovodi do djelomičnog osvješćivanja vladajućih struktura o razmjerima krize unutar države. Unatoč pokušajima ekonomske stabilizacije i liberalizacije cijena, Jugoslavija će se, uslijed i dalje nerješivih nacionalnih i političkih problema, početkom 1990-ih raspasti.
Jedan od glavnih razloga nastanka punka u Engleskoj, pa tako i u ostatku svijeta, biti će potpuno drugačiji smjer razvoja rock glazbe naspram njegovog prvotnog izričaja. Uz ovaj razlog, za nastanak engleske punk scene zaslužno je i loše društveno-ekonomsko stanje koje je prevladavalo u zemlji. Iako će punkeri nerijetko naglašavati kako nijedan dotadašnji glazbeni pravac njima nije bio uzor, oni se ipak mogu pronaći u nekim određenim izvođačima. Kao najrelevantniji bend za opis originalne punk scene u Engleskoj, uzimamo Sex Pistolse. Njihov prvi nastup krajem 1975., karakterizirati će i njihovu daljnju karijeru. Izvođači bez glazbenog obrazovanja, s nikakvim iskustvom sviranja instrumenata, izvodili su prvotno energičnije prepjeve glazbe iz 1960-ih, a potom i vlastite skladbe okarakterizirane kao negiranje svih dotadašnjih glazbenih izričaja. Znatan faktor koji će također utjecati na njihovu popularnost, a tako ujedno i na sam raspad benda, bila je negativna medijska slika koju su članovi benda, na čelu sa svojim menadžerom Malcolmom McLarenom, promovirali. Povezivanje cijelog punk pokreta s lijevo liberalnim teorijama i političkim aktivizmom, dovelo je i do sudjelovanja određenog broja izvođača na koncertima novonastalih pokreta krajem 1970-ih u Engleskoj. (Rock Against Racism i Anti Nazi League). Prekid turneje, ali i raspuštanje Sex Pistolsa u SAD-u početkom 1978., označilo je kraj prvotnog punk pokreta.
Uzroci nastanka punk glazbe u SAD-u neće biti jednakog socijalnog karaktera. Pjesme izvođača bile su puno bliže popularnoj kulturi kasnih 1950-ih i ranih 1960-ih, nego li pozivu na društvenu revoluciju. Tako neki autori navode kako punk kao zasebni glazbeni pravac u SAD-u nikada nije ni postojao. Više se može smatrati jednim od derivata novog vala (shvaćenog u širem smislu), i to pod nazivom punk rock. Ako ga ipak klasificiramo kao zaseban pokret, možemo ga podijeliti na dva segmenta. Onaj prvi obuhvaća bendove orijentirane surf rock i bubble-gum pop zvuku (The Dictators i Ramones). Drugi izvođači često pod utjecajem visoke kulture, pripadat će umjetničkoj struji koja ih smješta na samu granicu punk i novovalnog izričaja (DEVO, Talking Heads, Blondie, B-52s, The Cars)
S obzirom da je novi val nastupio nakon hippie i punk pokreta, novi umjetnici bili su svjesni razloga njihovih neuspjeha. Hippie pokret pokušao je iznjedriti društvenu revoluciju mirnim putem. Punkeri su za isti cilj bili spremni i na uzvraćanje agresije. Naposljetku, ni jedan ni drugi pokret nisu uspjeli. Uvidjevši kako su prošli glazbeni pravci bili ispražnjeni od svog sadržaja (kritika) te da je od njih ostao samo stil, novi val će se okrenuti slavljenju čistog zvuka i slike. Iako se promatra kao zaseban glazbeni pravac, novi val se može okarakterizirati i kao jedan od mnogobrojnih derivata punka.
Kronološki, novi val možemo podijeliti u tri faze koje će biti mnogo jasnije i vremenski usklađenije u Engleskoj, nego li u SAD-u. Prva faza odnosi se na razdoblje od 1978./1979. do 1981. Karakteriziraju ga bendovi koji su još bili svjesni kako se svijet nalazi na prekretnici između zbilje i umjetne stvarnosti. Njima isprazna slika koju su predstavljali još neće mnogo značiti u stvarnom životu. Neki od tih bendova/izvođača u Engleskoj bili su Human League, Adam Ant, Elvis Costello i Soft Cell.
Druga faza novog vala započeti će 1981. i trajati do sredine istog desetljeća. Bendovi osnivani u tom razdoblju polako gube svijest koju su njihovi prethodnici imali o razlikovanju stvarnog i umjetnog života. Takvo razdoblje, gdje će slika, potpuno ispražnjena od svog sadržaja, postati način života i put do slave, možemo nazvati čistim postmodernizmom. U Engleskoj će ovo razdoblje karakterizirati bendovi poput Duran Durana, Culture Cluba te Spandau Baletta. Najveći utjecaj na ovakav razvoj novog vala, imat će pojava MTV-a 1. kolovoza 1981., prve glazbene televizije koja će prvih godina postojanja, 24 sata dnevno prikazivati samo glazbene spotove.
Posljednja, treća faza novog vala, nastupa od 1985. nadalje i karakterizira se ostacima stila koji se pojedinačno referiraju na određena razdoblja prošlosti rock glazbe.
Za razliku od svjetske punk i novovalne scene, koja se dobrim dijelom može glazbeno i stilski diferencirati, u slučaju one nastale na području Jugoslavije, to neće biti moguće. Zajednički nastupi na istim lokacijama, te povezanost s istim izdavačkim kućama, navode nas da mnoge izvođače svrstamo u jednu novu i objedinjenu glazbenu scenu. Ona se vremenski može podijeliti u dva dijela. Kao početak prvog uzima se kraj 1976., a njegov završetak označava prijelaz iz 1982. u 1983. Navedeno prvo razdoblje biti će u centru razmatranja ovog rada, s naglaskom na tzv. Punk trokut, gradove Rijeku, Ljubljanu i Zagreb.
Od 1979., pa do 1982. umrijet će troje najutjecajnijih jugoslavenskih komunista; Edvard Kardelj, Josip Broz Tito i Vladimir Bakarić. Naraštaji koji će u periodu 1980-ih odrastati, u komunizmu neće vidjeti uzore i budućnost, kao što su se to nadale vladajuće strukture. Uvidjevši do kakvog stanja u zemlji ih je takav totalitaran sistem doveo, oni će upravo kroz punk i novi val pronaći načine kako bi im uputili odgovarajuće kritike. Sam državni aparat je svojim ponašanjem prema novoj glazbenoj sceni pokazivao svoju nekompetentnost i zastarjelost svojih struktura. I dalje su postojale točno određene teme i osobe u čiju se ispravnost nije smjelo ni posumnjati, a kamo li o njoj javno progovoriti. Takve pojave organi državne sigurnosti ograničavali su do tada već klasičnim načinima (privođenja, ispitivanja, zastrašivanjima). Novitet kojim su se služili, bila je tzv. šund komisija. Oko njezinog pravorijeka o kvaliteti i podobnosti svih tekstova pjesama koje su bile objavljivane u Jugoslaviji, nije bilo dvojbe. Glazbenici bi, uvidjevši po kojem principu sama komisija funkcionira, nerijetko pristajali na određene cenzure tekstova, koji njima samima i nisu bili od prevelike važnosti, ali su za državu predstavljali principe od kojih je bilo zabranjeno odustajati. |
Sažetak (engleski) | After the Second World War, Great Britain represented a European country faced with the loss of its former political and economical power. Unsure of the unconditional usefulness of European integrations, it will often be amongst the last states acceding to certain treaties and agreements. A policy similar to the Scandinavian social democratic model (welfare state), which began to be implemented in 1945, will not prove to be a quality solution for social and economic circumstances in the UK. One of the most important issues within the state was the assimilation/integration of many immigrants arriving in England from various areas of the Commonwealth. The period of transition from 1978 to 1979 (Winter of discontent) is taken as the culmination point of poor governance. With the coming to power of Margaret Thatcher in 1979, the state experienced a reorganization within the framework of neoliberal economic doctrine and public administration reform.
The United States will be the only country with a great economic power after the end of the Second World War. Through NATO and trade relations with the countries of Western Europe, it will successfully expand its influence, thus clashing with the eastern communist states led by the Soviet Union. U.S. foreign policy actions will significantly affect their domestic policy. This will primarily be the conflict known today as the Vietnam War (with periods of the greatest interventions and conflicts between 1965 and 1969). During the 1970s, the United States would also experience a period of economic and social instability. Over the next decade, their economic and political power will increase again, and significantly affect the outcome of the Cold War conflict.
With the end of the Second World War, the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, under the leadership of Josip Broz Tito and the Communist Party, embarked on a relentless showdown with its political opponents. These events were preceded by the liquidations of prisoners of war and civilians during the war and the postwar period. From the very beggining of the new state, the leading communists had intended to shape public opinion that would support an undemocratic appointed government. After the conflict with Stalin and the Informbiro in 1948, Yugoslavia would act as a buffer zone between the European West and the East until its disintegration. The policies of the social revolution, which were carried out in the first decade of the state's existence, achieved the strengthening of state power, the weakening of the private sector, liberation from foreign capital and the introduction of economic centralization. The process of over-industrialization (although it had led to an increase in annual national income rates) will lead to an increase in the number of the working class and the creation of an bureaucratic apparatus. Such a system, without the action of the market, would, along with accelerated development, lead to an unprofitable economy and production. Although the members of the Communist Party have always spoken in the name of communism, and never in the name of the nation, it is precisely the problems of national issues that would extend throughout the history of Yugoslavia, and thus be the causes of its disintegration. The worst economic situation in which Yugoslavia had found itself will be at the turn of the 1970s and 1980s. Devastating economic figures were also reflected in people's daily lives. The mid-1980s led to a partial awareness of the governing structures about the scale of the crisis within the state. Despite the attempts at economic stabilization and price liberalization, Yugoslavia would disintegrate in the early 1990s due to still unresolved national and political problems.
One of the main reasons for the emergence of punk in England, and thus in the rest of the world, would be a completely different direction in the development of rock music compared to its original expression. In addition to this reason, the emergence of the English punk scene was due to the poor socio-economic situation that prevailed in the country. Although punks will often emphasize that no previous musical direction has been a role model for them, they can still be found in some specific artists. As the most relevant band to describe the original punk scene in England, we take the Sex Pistols. Their first appearance at the end of 1975 will characterize their further career. Performers without a music education, with no experience of playing instruments, performed initially more energetic renditions of music from the 1960s, and then their own compositions characterized as a denial of all previous musical expressions. A significant factor that would also affect their popularity, and thus the breakup of the band itself, was the negative media image that the band members, led by their manager Malcolm McLaren, promoted. The association of the entire punk movement with left-liberal theories and political activism also led to the participation of a number of performers at the concerts of the newly formed movements in the late 1970s in England. (Rock Against Racism and Anti Nazi League). The interruption of the tour, but also the disbandment of the Sex Pistols in the United States in early 1978, marked the end of the original punk movement.
The causes of the emergence of punk music in the United States will not be of equal social character. The songs of the performers were much closer to the popular culture of the late 1950s and early 1960s than to the call for a social revolution. Thus, some authors state that punk as a separate musical direction in the United States never even existed. It can be considered more as one of the derivatives of the new wave (understood in a broader sense), called punk rock. If we still classify it as a separate movement, we can divide it into two segments. The first one will include bands oriented to more surf rock and bubble-gum pop sound (The Dictators and Ramones). Other performers, often influenced by high culture, will belong to the artistic current that places them on the very border of punk and new wave expression (DEVO, Talking Heads, Blondie, B-52s, The Cars)
Since the new wave came after the hippie and punk movement, the new artists were aware of the reasons of their failure. The hippie movement tried to produce a social revolution in a peaceful way. The punks were ready to retaliate for the same goal. In the end, neither movement succeeded. Realizing that the past musical directions were emptied of their content (criticism) and that only style remained of them, the new wave will turn to the celebration of pure sound and image. Although viewed as a separate musical direction, the new wave can be characterized as one of many punk derivatives.
Chronologically, the new wave can be divided into three phases that will be much clearer and more time-aligned in England than in the US. The first phase refers to the period from 1978/1979 until 1981. It is characterized by bands that were still aware that the world was at a crossroads between reality and artificial reality. To them, the vain image they presented will not mean much in real life. Some of these bands/performers in England were Human League, Adam Ant, Elvis Costello and Soft Cell.
The second phase of the new wave would begin in 1981 and last until the middle of the decade. Bands formed in that period were slowly losing the awareness that their predecessors had about the distinction between real and artificial life. Such a period, where the image, completely emptied of its content, would become a way of life and a path to fame, can be called pure postmodernism. In England, this period was characterized by bands such as Duran Duran, Culture Club and Spandau Ballet. The greatest influence on this development of the new wave would have the appearance of MTV on August 1, 1981. It was the first music television that would show only music videos, 24 hours a day in the first years of its existence.
The last, third phase of the new wave, occurs from 1985 onwards and is characterized by remnants of the style that individually refered to certain periods of the past of rock music. Unlike the other punk and new wave scenes in the world, which can be largely musically and stylistically differentiated, in the case of the one created in Yugoslavia, this will not be possible. Joint performances at the same locations, and connections with the same record labels, lead us to classify many performers into one new and unified music scene. It can be divided into two parts. The beginning of 1976 is taken as the beginning of the first, and its end marks the transition from 1982 to 1983. The first period will be at the center of consideration of this paper, with emphasis on the so-called Punk triangle, the cities of Rijeka, Ljubljana and Zagreb.
From 1979 to 1982, the three most influential Yugoslav communists would die; Edvard Kardelj, Josip Broz Tito and Vladimir Bakarić. Generations that would grow up in the 1980s would not see role models and their future in communism, as the ruling structures had hoped. Realizing the state of affairs in the country that such a totalitarian system has brought them to, they would find ways to direct appropriate criticism through punk and the new wave. The state apparatus itself, by its behavior towards the new music scene, showed its incompetence and the obsolescence of its structures. There were still specific topics and people whose correctness should not be doubted, let alone spoken about publicly. Until then, the state security authorities had limited such phenomena to the classical methods (arrests, interrogations, intimidation). The novelty they used was the so-called shund commission. There was no doubt about her verdict on the quality and suitability of all the lyrics of the songs that were published in Yugoslavia. Musicians, seeing the principle on which the commission itself functions, would often agree to certain censorship of texts, which were not of great importance to them, but represented, for the state principles, that were forbidden to give up from. |